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The reflex action and reflex ARC
The reflex arc is a rapid and involuntary movement in response to a stimulus, and it is a critical process for the survival of many species, including humans. It involves a series of sensory, motor, and interneurons that allow for a quick and coordinated response to a stimulus. The reflex arc consists of five components,…
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The Central Nervous System (CNS)
The central nervous system (CNS) is a vital component of the human body that coordinates and controls all bodily functions. It consists of the brain and spinal cord, which work together to receive and process information from the senses, interpret that information, and send signals to other parts of the body to initiate a response.…
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are essential chemical messengers that play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes in the brain and throughout the body. They are involved in functions such as mood, sensation, movement, and cognition. The imbalances or disruptions in neurotransmitter function can lead to a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. This article provides an…
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Photorespiration
Photorespiration is a complex process that takes place in plants when the concentration of CO2 inside the leaves decreases. This process reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis and ultimately leads to decreased plant growth and yield. In this chapter, we provide an in-depth overview of photorespiration, its biochemistry, regulation, and its impact on plant growth and…
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C4 Plants
C4 plants have evolved a unique mechanism for carbon fixation that allows them to efficiently produce glucose in hot and dry environments. This mechanism, known as the C4 pathway, involves the spatial separation of carbon dioxide fixation and the Calvin cycle. The C4 pathway provides several ecological advantages to plants, including increased water use efficiency…
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